A LEXICON COMPARING WORDS OF EUROPE AND ASIA Comparison of some Chinese words with words of Russian and Finnish languages, and words common in TEUTONIC languages; also noticing some Old Greek words of interest. by Pasi K Pohjala THIS IS SECOND, IMPROVED EDITION OF September 27, 2017, that much develops older First Edition, of April 16, 2016. Articles of MAA (horse); PAOBU (run); ZHI (sticks and logs); YU (fish); TAIYANG (sun); ZIJI (self) and ZHU (live, dwell); HUNLI (wedding); GAI (build); KAI (to burn); GAO (warm); LIFU (cloth); YANJING (eyes); PENGYOU (friends); QU (come, go); LAOSHI (clever); HAO and HUAI (good and not good); LONG (dragon); WOSHI (a dwelling, a room); BIAOGE (cousin); QUN (measuring group); SHAN (mountain); SHU (tree); CAO (grass, lawn); HUA (flowers); HU (river); HAI (ocean, sea); NAO (brain); MEI (every); KU (bitter); SUAN (sour); TIAN (sweet); CHUANTONG (tradition); DONGSI (something); WEN (question); WAI (other); WEI (someone); SHENG (body); YING (win); SHOU (writings); LIANG (travel); and comparisons of numerals one to ten; and CONCLUDING SUMMARY. The main aim for this lexicon survey is to clarify and manifest similarities of many usual words in modern TEUTONIC languages, with Chinese words. Regrettably, their similarities with Chinese words often remains unrecognised in surveys of linguistic history of usual words; but this study aims to manifest in this question much more clarities in apparent form. Importantly, older Anglo-Saxon words yet preserve many very close similarities that have become in modern language obsolete, or appear in quite changed form after centuries in modern language. Thus are also similarities of such Chinese words noticed with words in Russian and Finnish languages, Chinese neighbouring cultures in this large Eurasian continent. FIFTY ARTICLES, by Pasi K Pohjala. Chinese MAA word for HORSE is very similar to modern English MARE for fem horses (and in Swedish marr although HAST is there more general) and Finnish HUMMA word for horses. In Anglo-Saxon MEARH notices horses (see Boswell); and historically Old TEUTONIC MARKOZ noticed fem horses, also apparently similar; and Indogermanic root is MARKOS (Skeat art “mare”, it is notable that Skeat finds here being “root uncertain”). Importantly, FICK (art “MARHA”) notice MARHA, Pferd and comparing with English MARR and Anglo-Saxon MEARH; neither FICK presents clear roots for this. Notoriously, Biblical Hebrew RKB words notice riding (see BDB RKB), and quite famous Hebrew noun formation MARKHAVA notices chariots in Old Hebrew. In older times, horses were all important and usual, and thus this vocabulary IS particularly important. Chinese word PAO notice walking and running, and Chinese PAOBU and MANPAO words notice running activity. Also, there are apparently similar with Finnish verbs PAKO; PAETA (to flee from) and PIKA; PIKAINEN (quick). Importantly thus is Russian BEGAT (to run) also apparent similar and also resembling Turkish BEYGIR word notices horses, quick runners and Turkish CABUK notices to be in hurry and doing quickly. Notoriously, for Chinese PAO and PAOBU and MANPAO verbs we detect similarity with very usual Old Hebrew BA verb (to come; to go see BDB); and even similarity with old Greek BAINOO verb for coming and going (usual in ANABAINOO and KATABAINOO etc). In old Anglo-Saxon it is notable that BE-CUMAN usually does notice arriving and coming (even if modern English BECOME has other meaning). Chinese ZHI measure word notices long and thin objects, eg chopsticks; and in Finnish similar are TIKKU (a stick) and TUKKI (woodlog) words; and Old Hebrew TQY verb notices to drive a peg in when setting up a tent. Old Greek ZUGOS notices also yokes, special wooden stick too; the KSULOS being more general Greek word for wood and trees. Importantly, Turkish CIVI notices nails and pegs and CIVILEMEK to nail. Old Anglo-Saxon TELGA word notices branches (and Chinese TENG is word for sticks, cane and rattan); this is also worth comparing with modern LOG word in form TH-LOG. Furthermore, modern English knows usual STICK word that is usual TEUTONIC word; old TEUTONIC root STIK noticed to pierce and to prick (in Sanskrit, root tij notices to be sharp); similarly with Greek STIZEIN, to prick. Finnish verb is TUKKIA although not peculiarly done with TUKKI instrument; and Anglo-Saxon form is STINGAN. From Indogermanic root STEIG and more usual Teutonic form STEKAN are many modern words developed (Skeat art “stick”). Notably, TIKKU, TUKKI and ZUGOS rather notice all kinds of wooden sticks and rods, not with particular regard to pricking. Chinese YU word notices fishes generally. Also, another character in Chinese is YU for heavy rain. Notably, Finnish JUO verb notices to drink, well relevant for swimming fish. And German Kabeljau notices cod fish; and German das Juchten notices watertight leathern things, also well similar with Chinese YU for fish. (In old times, such could be floats when filled with air). We find here words denoting floating, or, something swimming. In Russian language, we find many interestingly similar words, RYBA for fish and PLYT verb notices swimming. Famous Old Greek word for ships is PLOUS. Russian BYI word notices floating thing; all these Russian words interestingly recall that Chinese YU word for fish. In Old Testament famous are, also, NUNA fish. In Turkish is the BUYU for magic and incantations, and YUZMEK verb notices in Turkish to float. In Finnish is same word UI or UIDA noticing swimming, same with Russian BYI and Turkish YUZMEK for floating. It is actually notable that Anglo-Saxon YT word notices seas, especially waves (see Boswell)- this word is in modern Swe YTA for waves, too. In Old Hebrew we find YUAM (or, jam) word for waters and seas; and Hebrew BYH notices to bubble, and to reveal, and is used in reference to waters, too. In ancient times, rivers, waterways and coastal routes were very important routes for travelling and transportation, and many people were thereby active and in such areas resident, so that similarity in these words is especially important. (Notice also history of lighthouse-keeper GUTLAC in West-Saxon Exeter Book). Chinese TAIYANG notices sun and Chinese DANKONG notices high above in the sky. This is notoriously similar with usual Finnish word TAIVAS that generally notices heavens; and Finnish TAVATA notices encounters and appearances generally. Very similar is Anglo-Saxon word TUNGOL word stars (word SWEGL is rather, for sun); actually we find this in name TENGEL-HOF of a modern airport (TUNGOL SCEAL ON HEOFENUM BEORHTE SCINAN, thus a saying in Gnomic verses in Anglo-Saxon Mss TiberiusB). For TUNGOL, older German knew ZUNGAL, and in older Swedish is TUNGEL word for moon (Boswell “tungol”). (Cf also how FICK comments dug, dunkel sein). Also Turkish language knows very similar words, DUN noticing night, and DUN also noticing how something goes up in the air. In Russian is DAVAT usual verb for giving; apparently important earlier was hope for providential sustenance from heavens, for good weather of seasons; and Russian word DEN notices days. Notably thus is similar the usual Old Hebrew TOV for good and Hebrew JOM TOV notices religious festival days. And in Hebrew NTH notices to spread, similarly how heavens is spread; and Hebrew NTY notices to plant and to set up, also noticing how the heavens were regarded having been set up and established. Also, Old Hebrew DYK word notices to be extinguished, eg. of lamps. Old Greek AKTIS generally notices light and light rays and sparkles; and also Greek OURANOS word for heavens have quite similarity with Chinese TAIYANG word. Also importantly, in terms of geography, old name of central Finland was TAVAST-LAND, and it is important to recognise how vast areas of Siberia were (and are) known as TAYGA area. In older times, comprehension of geography was of course not so distinctive, so that similarity of names of Russian TAYGA area and old name of central Finland TAVAST-LAND is especially noteworthy. Actually, these old geographical terms are clear derived from Chinese TA noticing step on, tread and TAQING noticing walk on green grass. Chinese ZIJI notices SELF; and ZHU notices activity of living in and lodging. These are notoriously similar with Old Greek ZAO (ZEIN) noticing to live; and also similar with Greek OIKIDZEIN noticing dwelling in habitation or in a house. Russian usual verb ZIT notices both being alive and inhabiting in; inhabitants are ZITELEI. Apparently similar with Chinese use are Finnish nouns SIJA and SUOJA, words for place of something or place of someone. Thus it is interesting to compare with common TEUTONIC word SELF (German selber, Swedish sjalv) that is common TEUTONIC and is in Old TEUTONIC found in selbo words. In Old Norwegian found form SIALF is notably similar with the SIJA word, continuously usual in Finnish. But etymology of this common TEUTONIC self words is continuously regarded obscure. Thus it is surely worth comparison with these Chinese ZIJI and ZHU words, that find so remarkable comparison in continuously usual Finnish SIJA and SUOJA words, and also in Russian usual ZIT verb, especially with regard to geography and population movements during decades. Chinese HUNLI notices wedding; this is apparent similar with usual Finnish JUHLA (a festival) and JUHLIA (to celebrate) and dialect form JUHULA. Also, modern German knows of JAUCHZEN loud celebrating. Notably, in old Anglo-Saxon is HUSL word for Eucharist (see Boswell), important churchly celebration. And in Turkish notices CULUS word throne accession festivities. Also is similar Old Greek GELAOO to laugh and be happy; and in Russian is ULIBKA noticing smile. Remarkably is similar here Turkish GULUMSEME for smile and GULUMSEMEK to smile. Notoriously similar is English noun HALL that is common TEUTONIC word (German Halle and Swedish hall), and is in old TEUTONIC found in HALLA form; this noticing generally large places with some roof. Apparently, festival gatherings usually were gathering under some roofed area, or under tents. Thus we also remind of old Hebrew AKL verb noticing eating, and celebrating; and AHL noticing tents in Old Hebrew. Chinese GAI word notices to build; this character notices to build and lid, cover. In Finnish usual word KATTO notices a roof or a ROOFED place (and verb KATTAA); similar is also Turkish CATI for roof, thus place established for settled inhabitation. Anglo-Saxon GEAT notices a gate, also roofed structure (see Boswell, notices also German Gasse), also modern English notices this in word GATE (however is Swedish en gata different, noticing a street). Notably similar thereby is also old Hebrew GAG noticing a roof, and roofed place (see BDB); also Greek usual OIKOS can have similarity. Word GAR is in Hebrew usual verb for inhabiting and dwelling in. This Hebrew GAR also is similar with Old Greek AGORA the public square of cities and AGORADZEIN. In Russian is word GOROD usual for cities and towns (and Russian verb GORA is more for travelling, especially in hill countries). These are built and well established places of human habitation; and AGORA, for public activities in cities Notably, many Turkish GUR words are of residence and exile, word GURBET noticing exile and foreign travelling; this actually echoes in Old Hebrew found nuance of strangeness in GAR word included. And Anglo-Saxon knows GRIT word for havens and sanctuaries. These are notably interesting words concerning travellers and places and havens for travellers, in longer distances. Chinese KAI word notices to burn and to boil, also the KAI character notices to start, begin; such are important activities in human habitation and settling. Remarkably similar is old Greek KAIOO and KAUSIS, for kindling and burning. Actually it is notable that much resembling old Greek word GIGNOMAI notices beginnings and becoming- comparison of meanings of Chinese KAI with Greek KAIOO and GIGNOMAI is notorious. (In Greek is of course the KAI word for AND in writings really usual too). In Biblical Hebrew the similar KWH kawa notice to burn. Finnish verb KIAHUU notices to boil (standard form is KIEHUA). Similar is also Turkish KAYNATMAK, and Turkish word GOK notices sky and heavens; that is also place of bright stars and lights; and in Swedish we recognise ETT KOK noticing kitchen area of a house where is the fireplace operated; in German, word Kuche notices a kitchen. And in Finnish is KOKKO usual word for large bonfires; but it is notable that poetic Finnish also reminds of huge KOKKO that specifically is particular kind of bird or flying being. Also similar Chinese GAO word notices warm. Apparently similar word also here is Greek KAIOO, KAUSIS that notice warming, burning and boiling. Also Turkish KAYNATMAK noticing to boil, appears similar; in Finnish language word KIAHUU notices boiling. Chinese GAO is word for warm. Apparently, descriptions of warm and cold are not objectively determined and thus can much show variation in different places and for different people. Thus we, indeed, find in TEUTONIC languages notable resemblances in words for COLD. The COLD is common TEUTONIC word (German kalt, Kalte and Swedish kall and English cold, see comments in Skeat and Boswell); in Old TEUTONIC was verb stem KAL noticing to be cold, also old TEUTONIC KALDOZ. This is ONE word where old TEUTONIC root actually is the same with Chinese word, merely writing one more sound of L so that GAO with L appears KAL towards western areas. This phenomenon is notably often repeated and here in MANY words manifested. Anglo-Saxon knows CALD and CEALD for cold (Boswell “ceald”). (Important are FICK notices of KAL, KALAN, kalt sein, frieren). Notably, this old TEUTONIC forms is not too different from Old Hebrew words QAR, QARIR for cold (and actually, old Hebrew letters R and L are so remarkably similar that QAL forms in old Hebrew writs also may have occurred too, noticing cold!) And thus, we also recognise similar Russian GALODNO noticing cold. In Finnish, most similar is HALLA of freezing wintry nights (cf also Finnish KALMA word), and this is, remarkably, similar with old TEUTONIC root KALDOZ, and, Old Greek KHALADZA is apparently similar too. Chinese LEI notices thunder; and really similar is English FLAME (cf Swedish flamm), especially in pronouncing “fleim” that is really similar with this Chinese word. Finnish knows TULI for fire, and LEIMU also is in Finnish for fire. Old Anglo-Saxon ALED is for fire, also LIG or LIGG in Anglo-Saxon notice flame and fire. In Turkish is ALEV for fire, LHB lahab in old Hebrew is for fire, and Greek LIGUS is also for fire Chinese LIFU word notices cloths; apparently