obadiah and philo of alexandria quod deus

seeing of their glorious coming. These texts of Book of Baruch provide unmistakable parallels to Sion traditions in Book of Obadiah, these both books so importantly connected to Jeremiah. These easy considerations lead to the New and Modernised Translation of Obadiah 21.


CHAPTER 22. WRITINGS OF PHILO OF ALEXANDRIA AND BOOK OF OBADIAH

Philo of Alexandria wrote mainly commentaries to Torah, writing very important allegorical commentaries for texts of Torah, whose allegories have preserved earlier traditions of Alexandria and Palestine, and further developed them, and developed novel and usually very intriguing commentaries. Philo’s allegorical commentaries were thereafter very important for early Christian readers, and also very important for development of medieval allegorical interpretation of Scriptures (see esp. works of E. Brehier, H. De Lubac, J. Cazeaux, V. Nikiprowetzky, I. Heinemann, H. A. Wolfson, P. Borgen and many other important scholars of Philonica). Philo was very prolific writer whose currently known works comprise 12 volumes in Loeb Classical Library where the modern English translation of Whittaker and F. Colson is often followed in the English-speaking world. The huge scope of Philo’s works contains, however, only seldom scriptural quotations from Prophets and Writings (according to currently established comprehension of “quotation” in allegorical Midrashic interpretation), Philo mostly writing Scriptural prooftexts of Torah. (This includes, of course, fundamental problems of tradition of Philonic Manuscripts because of the possibility of some later copyists writing in appropriate places more extensive quotations, usually well in accordance with Greek translations of Bible; ancient Jewish and Hellenised Jewish readers were usually very fluent in Biblical writings and for THEIR comprehension often a reference was constituted by few famous words in Scriptural texts, this well known to every Reader of Midrash, Mishnah and Talmud. This problem is fundamental for studying Philo’s writings- and understandably, proceeding of the current commentary on Book of Obadiah cannot further consider such fundamental problems of Manuscripts of Philonic writings. The current study proceeds from the critical edition of Cohn-Wendland of PHILONIS OPERA and scholarly discussion of Philo’s writings. These remarks seem to be necessary for commencing the study of comparing book of Obadiah and Philo’s writings. Philo of Alexandria only very seldom makes explicit references to writings in Books of Prophets, and from Book of Obadiah cannot references be found (see the study of Biblia Patristica). Book of Obadiah is, of course, more concise Book of Bible, and such lack of references in Philo’s literature thus becomes more understandable. Furthermore, Philo of Alexandria does not in his writing mention name “Obadiah” (see the Philo Index of Borgen-Fuglseth-Skarsten) even when the different variants of writing this name are considered, found in LXX Gottingensia. These searches thus could lead Scholars to consider that Book of Obadiah was not important for Philo of Alexandria. Once more it is, of course, important to emphasise that Book of Obadiah is included in the canonical Scriptures during an lengthy process of selecting “Canonical” writings, mostly in Christian discussions and therefore there clearly exists the possibility that Book of Obadiah actually was not among those writings that Alexandria Hellenistic Jews were often reading in the times of Philo of Alexandria and before Philo. Thus, Book of Obadiah can have been more or less ignored by Alexandrian Hellenistic Jews and mostly included in the collection the Canon mostly during Christian tradition. This could account for Book of Obadiah having been seemingly not noticed by Philo of Alexandria. Well known, Philo of Alexandria in his writings mostly comments texts from Torah; even books of Isaiah and Jeremiah only seldom are referred to in writings of Philo. Attentive Readers thus, of course, consider further possibilities of finding some Philonic writings arguably relevant for the Book of Obadiah. Easily is thus found one very important writing of Philo, the QUOD DEUS IMMUTABILIS SIT (The Unchangeableness of God) that clearly contains many statements possibly relevant to the Book of Obadiah. Readers notice that the Book of Obadiah among all Biblical Books is especially writing of Edom; and among Philo’s writings the name Edom notoriously often occurs in the QUOD DEUS IMMUTABILIS SIT (hereafter written “Quod Deus”), the name Edom in this Book occurring five times written although only seldom occurring in other writings of Philo (Post 101 and Migr 146 and Q.G. 4:171 containing the only other references to name Edom in Philonica, thus the Philo Index of Borgen-Fuglseth-Skarsten). Attentive Readers thus further consider important words, finding name Seir of important Edomite city (possibly name of Petra) occurring in Philonic writings only here in Quod Deus 99. Thus attentive Readers further much consider the writings of the Philonic Quod Deus being possible Philonic writing especially important to Book of Obadiah, the Book of Obadiah so centrally writing concerning Edom and Edomites. The Greek word PETRA does not, however occur at all in Quod Deus neither can there be found clear references to some form of the Aramaic name of the city, REKEM or REQEM. Alas, Philo writes always well informed of details of Scriptures and therefore is important to notice words of Quod Deus 113 writing that
SUSTEMA KAI SUMFOREMA KAKION ATHROON KAI POIKILON EIS EN EIDOS SUNUFASMENON ESTIN
“is the concentration and congeries of all vices multitudinous and manifold, woven together into a single form” (trl. of Colson in LCL).This text actually writes notice of multicoloured woven cloth that is very usual comprehension of the RQM words in Hebrew Bible (and importantly, see Hatch-Redpath for translation traditions: such SUNUFAINO occurs in Exod 28:32, 36:10, 36:17 and 36:27). These words of Quod Deus 113 make unmistakable and very clear reference to the ARAMAIC name of Petra, the name REQEM. In the Quod Deus 113, Philo thus actually writes very clear reference to Petra, referring to ARAMAIC name REQEM of Petra; importantly, also historian Josephus so refers to this city with its ARAMAIC name. The POIKILOS only here occurs in Quod Deus, but the SUNUFAINO often denoting weaving and woven cloths does occur in Quod Deus also in 20 and 69. The Quod Deus 20 begins Philo’s interpretation of Gen 6:5-7 and thus is written in important place in this treatise Quod Deus that mostly interprets the history of Flood in Gen 6 and thus continues Philo’s writings in de Gigantibus; the Quod Deus 20 writes before quoting Gen 6:5-7 words TOUTON MEN DE ALIS, TA D’ AKOLOUTHA TO LOGO SUNUFENOMEN. Furthermore, Quod Deus 69 writes ETERA DUO SUNUFENAI AKOLOUTHA KAI SUGGENEE. These occurrences of SUNUFAINO thus emphasise Philo’s making clear references to REQEM in Quod Deus, the ARAMAIC name of Petra, the capital of Nabataean empire.
Furthermore, attentive Readers easily notice that the Book Quod Deus especially writes interpretations for descriptions of Israel’s going by “mountain country”, this topic clearly very relevant for writing of Edom and the Nabataean capital Petra. Further is central theme found in Philo’s Quod Deus writing of the King’s High Road (BASILIKE ODOS), commenting of travelling along such King’s High Road making very important topic of the Book of Quod Deus. Importantly, very important part of the Nabataean empire actually was King’s Road from Aqaba continuing through region of Petra towards Damascus and Palmyra. (After the annexation of Nabataean kingdom to the Roman empire 106CE, also the Romans developed road traffic in this very important area, here building Trajan’s road from Aqaba to Damascus and Palmyra that, however, by-passed Petra- this further declined the status of this ancient flourishing Nabataean centrum of trade and trade routes). Surely, many roads, routes and highways were called with such names “King’s Road” or “King’s High Road” or “Royal Road” in the time of Philo of Alexandria in these regions, and in then flourishing Alexandria and its vicinity. Philo writes notoriously often in the Book Quod Deus Immutabilis Sit of the King’s Road and thus can have denoted many roads or highways in the Ancient world in Alexandria itself or in the vicinity of Alexandria, in Palestine, or more generally in Easter Mediterranean. However, Philo writes of the King’s Road in book Quod Deus in such writings that especially often write of Edom and Edomites, and this detail much motivates considering then truly famous and well known King’s Road of the Nabataean empire having specifically been thus noticed by Philo in Quod Deus Immutabilis Sit. Easily Readers thus consider finding very important geographical designations in the Book of Quod Deus Immutabilis Sit, writing of Edom, writing of Seir and writing of King’s Road (BASILIKE ODOS)- and all these details of geography clearly are in good accordance with well known important geographical details of Nabataean Empire. Philo of Alexandria lived appr. 20 BCE-40CE, during this time the Nabataean empire still well flourishing and succeeding in their trade empire. Philo was well educated member of wealthy Alexandrian family much doing commerce, trade and much involved in high administrative posts, and thus the importance of the neighbouring Nabataean trade empire and its capital PETRA could never have been forgotten by Philo of Alexandria. Philo surely was aware of the flourishing Nabataean empire, possibly often negotiating with some Nabataean merchants and their representatives. Philo’s writings usually are read for their being masterly allegories, mostly finding some form of Platonised Stoic though in the allegorical meaning of Scriptures, and therefore details of geography and details of realia are less often studied because of the special concentration on Philo’s ingenuous allegorical interpretation of Bible. One important recent study of Philo’s notices of geographical facts is Peder Borgen’s study “Philo and His World” (the Ch. 1 of: Peder Borgen: “Philo of Alexandria: and Exegete of His Time” (1997)) where Prof. Borgen writes thorough study of references to geographical details mentioned in Philo’s writings. Thus are notices many details describing Greek, Rome, Egypt, Alexandria, Palestine and Jerusalem. Important writings are, among else, found in Legat 281-283, Flacc 43, Flacc 55 and Moses 1:99. Philo also often describes lake Mareotis and its vicinity in writing of the Therapeutae. Furthermore, the Ch. 2 of this Book of Prof. Borgen, the “Historical Perspective”, writes mode detailed concerning the important histories of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid empire, their contests and Roman empire. Readers find much very important information and studies in these recent important studies. Considering then flourishing Nabataean empire with its capital in Petra, it is further important to emphasise that in Quod Deus Philo clearly devotes especial attention to Seir, Edom and “King’s High Road”, well known important designations of very famous parts of then flourishing Nabataean kingdom. The current study thus continues studying Philo of Alexandria’s QUOD DEUS IMMUTABILIS SIT being such writing of Philo that much can be studied with Book of Obadiah, also this Book so notoriously writing of Edom, Petra, Seir, Sela and much of Nabataean culture. Easily is found the notorious detail that Philo of Alexandria in context of mentioning SEIR in Quod Deus 99 is actually writing comprehensive discussion of PRAKSIS, PRATTEIN and PRAGMA, such words actually very clearly referring to the very name of Prophet OBADIAH, written YBDJH where the YBD often in Greek Bible is translated with such words. Philo writes here clearly detailed discussion of theory of action, much referring to Aristotelian and Hellenistic ethics. Thus is motivated detailed and attentive study of Philo’s QUOD DEUS IMMUTABILIS SIT comparing this Book with Book of Obadiah; importantly, recently this book Quod Deus Immutabilis Sit has been commented by David Winston and John Dillon “Two Treatises of Philo of Alexandria: A Commentary on De Gigantibus and Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis” (BJS 25, 1983) by two eminent Scholars of Philonic writings and Hellenistic Philosophy.

Philo writes in Quod Deus 99 quotation from Deut 1:43-44 writing
PARABIASAMENOI TINES ANEBESAN EPI TO OROS KAI EKSELTHEN O AMORRAIOS O KATOIKON EN TO OREI EKEINO KAI ETITROSKEN AUTOUS OS AN POIESEIAN AI MELISSAI KAI EDIOKSEN AUTOUS APO SEIR EOS ERMA
This quotation of Deut 1:43-44 in Quod Deus 99 is thus found to contain the only reference to SEIR in Philonic writings (according to the Philo Index). (The NRSV translates this with “The Amorites who lived in that hill country then came out against you and chased you as bees do. They beat you down in Seir as far as Hormah”). This notice of Seir occurs in very important text of Deut 1 summarising much of the Wilderness wandering towards the Land, and this notice of Seir is in this Deut 1 very specifically written in discussion of Edom and Edomites. This notice of Deut 1:43-44 describes Israelites’ unsuccessful attempt of invading that area after noticing the report of the spies sent to the Land. The mount of Seir is very central in this Biblical history, the 2:1 writing of WNSB AT HR SYJR JMJM RBJM (NRSV: “and skirted Mount Seir for many days”) the Deut 2:4 importantly noticing BNJ YSW HJSBJM BSYJR (NRSV “the descendants of Esau, who live in Seir”), further the Deut 2:5 very importantly writing of KJ JRSH LYSW NTTJ AT HR SYJR (NRSV “since I have given Mount Seir to Esau as a possession”), also the Deut 2:8 noticing BNJ YSW HJSBJM BSYJR (NRSV “the descendants of Esau who live in Seir”; translations to these important texts of Esau and SEIR are now followed more in NRSV thus more to reflect the currently generally supported comprehensions of these statements in these statements writing of Esau, the brother of Jacob). In the Biblical writings, these statements of Deut 1 and Deut 2 are very central statements concerning SEIR, ESAU and Edom, and importantly, Philo of Alexandria here in Quod Deus 99 makes clear reference to this Biblical history, also mentioning the name SEIR. Thus Philo of Alexandria writing notably often concerning Edom in the Quod Deus importantly also quotes very important text of Torah concerning Edom, SEIR and Esau, the deut 1:43-44. This further supports that indeed Philo writes in Quod Deus very intentionally concerning Edom, Esau and SEIR. Philo’s writing in Quod Deus importantly shows consideration to details of geography in writing lengthy list of prosperous nations and cities in Quod Deus 173-174, there mentioning Greece, Macedonia, Persia, Parthia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Carthage, Libya, even noticing “Europe” and “Asia” and comparing their times of flourishing and prospering. Such list written in Quod Deus 173-174 among the discussion of Edom and Edomites actually clearly confirms that in this writing Philo of Alexandria thinks of concrete details of geography- the writing of Edom and Seir in this treatise Quod Deus occur being references to then actual prevailing situation (of course, Philo then develops allegorical interpretation concerning Edom and Seir, but such writings make unmistakably clear that Philo hear writes emphatically referring to then concrete details of geography of Edom and Seir. Philo of Alexandria thus in Quod Deus Immutabilis Sit writes concrete and clear references to Nabataean empire). In the Quod Deus 94 writes notice of great cities, their houses, their hewn chambers and water-storages (LAKKOUS LELATOMEMENOUS OUS OUK EKSELATOMESAN) quoting thus Deut 6:10-11 and continuing in Quod Deus 95 further discussion of such cities, houses, chambers and cisterns of water. Such descriptions also descriptively accord with houses and cisterns of Petra so famously carved in stone (and, of course, to buildings in many other ancient cities). Philo’s writing of references of woven clothes and weaving together in Quod Deus 20, 69 and 113 make exceedingly clear Philo’s actually referring concretely to Nabataean capital PETRA in the Quod Deus Immutabilis Sit, its Aramaic name REQEM found in Hebrew Bible usually in texts noticing weaving and woven colourful clothes.

Philo writes in the context of Quod Deus 99 mentioning the SEIR in quotation of Deut 1:43-44 very important discussion of ethics and theory of action, in Quod Deus 100 writing
ANAGKE GAR KAI TOUS AFUOS EKHONTAS PROS TAS TON TEKHNON ANALEPSEIS, EI TI BIADZOMENOI PONOINTO PERI AUTAS, ME MONON SFALLESTHAI TOU TELOUS, ALLA KAI AISKHUNEN OFLEIN, KAI TOUS ALLO TI TON DEONTON ASUGKATALEPTO GNOME PRATTONTAS ETHELOUSIOS BIADZOMENOUS DE TO PAR’ AUTOIS EKOUSION ME KATORTHOUN ALLA PROS TOU SUNEIDOTOS TITROSKESTHAI TE KAI DIOKESTHAI
This text is important writing concerning ethics substantially of Stoic style, concerning doing some action of TON DEONTON with or without assent of judgement or will and EKOUSION ME KATORTHOUN. This is very definite statement of ethics of Stoic style, and Readers find competent current discussion also of this statement in the Commentary of D. Winston and J. Dillon. The current study is now concentrated to writing commentary on Book of Obadiah, and now it is found truly notorious that in THIS context Philo first notices SEIR in Quod Deus 99 and THEN notices such philosophical theory of ethics in Quod Deus 100, this directly echoing the Hebrew YBD of name of Prophet OBADIAH whose Book is so specifically writing of Edom and SELA-PETRA. Furthermore, Quod Deus 97 writes notice of seeing without toiling or effort
TON KOSMON EKSAIFNES APONOS KAI KHORIS PRAGMATEIAS OROSIN
Also this statement in THIS context writing of SEIR so clearly emphasises PRATTEIN and PONOS, also these clearly referring to Hebrew YBD and thus to the name YBDJH ”Obadiah”. So also writes Quod Deus 92-3 describing God’s giving treasures of Wisdom without toiling TA TES AIDIOU SOFIAS THOREMATA KAMATOU KHORIS KAI PONOU...TOIS MEN EPIPONOS ZETOUSIN APOTUGKHANEIN TOU ZETOUMENOU (thus writing of KAMNEIN and PONOS), also this noticing toiling and own efforts for achieving and searching for Wisdom.

Importantly, in the Quod Deus 142 Philo commences more extensively writing on the King’s High Road and travelling along the King’s High Road, this discussion considering Edom and Edomites. Noticing Philo’s numerous references to concrete details of contemporary geography, this reference to King’s High Road in this discussion specifically often noticing Edom and Edomites very probably refers to the famous Nabataean King’s High Road leading from Aqaba towards Damascus and Palmyra via Petra, the capital of Nabataean empire. In the Quod Deus 142 Philo understands that Wisdom (SOFIA) is the perfect High Road leading towards Deity. Here Philo importantly comments also the main discussion of this Quod Deus, the corruption described in the history of flood in Gen 6. Philo writes concerning travelling along this road
DIA GAR TAUTES O NOUS PODEGETOUMENOS EUTHEIAS KAI LEOFOROU HUPARKHOUSES AKHRI TON TERMATON AFIKNEITAI
Here Philo unmistakably refers also to the ancient antagonism and rivalry, noticing how Edom and Edomites attempt to make hindrance for Israel’s travelling along this King’s High Road
POREUESTHAI TEN ODON BASILIKEN OUSAN TOIS TOU ORATIKOU GENOUS METEKHOUSIN OPER ISRAEL KEKLETAI DIAMAKHETAI O GEINOS EDOM TOUTO GAR DIERMENEUTHEIS ONOMAZETAI
Well known is, actually, also the Nabataean empire in that region helping travellers and merchants travelling along such King’s High Road, protecting them for some payment; such actual circumstances of travelling in that area were surely known also to Philo of Alexandria whose family was much occupied in trade and high posts of administration in Egypt and Judaea. However, much knowledge of actual circumstances then prevailing can be clearly found in this Quod Deus. Then Philo refers in Quod Deus 145 to very central text describing Edom and Edomites encountered during the wilderness wandering. Philo quotes the Num 20:17-20 writing
O DE EDOM APOKRINETAI FASKON OU DIELEUSE DI’ EMOU EI DE ME, EN POLEMO EKSELEUSOMAI SOI EIS SUNANTESIN KAI LEGOUSIN AUTO OI HUIOI ISRAEL PARA TO OROS PARELEUSOMETHA
For the writing of Quod Deus here written words PARA TO OROS PARELEUSOMETHA are very central, these words quoted from Num 20:19 (also this quotation is in accordance with the currently usually reconstructed text of Greek Bible). Importantly, also the Greek Bible notices here meanings of these words, the 20:21 writing OUK ETHELESEN EDOM DOUNAI TO ISRAEL PARELTHEIN DIA TON ORION AUTOU, this more referring generally to the Edomite area writing of te DIA TON ORION and thus contrasting to PARA TO OROS PARELEUSOMETHA. Such writing of Edom and mountain and mountain areas are in accordance with geography of that region and also Book of Obadiah often noticing in Greek translations such mountains and mountain areas. Book of Obadiah writes in Greek translations thus of KATASKENOUNTA EN TAIS OPAIS TON PETRON (v.3), EOS TON ORION EKSAPESTEILAN SE PANTES OI ANDRES TES DIATHEKES SOU (v.7), SUNESIN EKS OROUS ESAU (v.8), EKS OROUS ESAU (v.9), EPI TO OROS TO HAGION MOU (v.16), EN DE TO OREI SION (v.17), EKS OROUS SION...TO OROS ESAU (v.21).
Philo in this context writes of people appearing in splendid and costly clothing, such notices of appearances also noticing, for example, then flourishing Nabataean culture. The Quod Deus 148 contains then important description of Edom and appearances
PROS TON BASILEA TON FAINOMENON APANTON AGATHON TON GEINON EDOM ONTOS GAR TA TO DOKEIN AGATHA PANTA GEINA
Thus Philo in Quod Deus 148 notices communication sent to the ruler of all good in appearance, the earthly Edom, emphasising that all things good in appearance are earthly. This contains important connection of Edom with things good in their appearance, writing of FAINEIN and DOKEIN, thus referring to Platonic ideas of DOKEIN and DOKSA and very specifically referring to Stoic comprehension of “good”. Importantly, this statement writes the FAINEIN and in the context of THIS book Quod Deus such word FAINEIN especially refers to the important SUNUFAINO found in 20, 69 and 113, this SUNUFAINO specifically describing weaving and colourful woven clothes, this referring to the OT Hebrew RQM or REQEM noticing the Aramaic name of PETRA. Also writes Quod Deus 153 EN AFTHONOIS TON FAINOMENON AGATHON. Also this context of Quod Deus 146-147 writing of splendid and costly appearance and FAINEIN thus contains in THIS BOOK important reference to REQEM-PETRA, this statement of Quod Deus 148 specifically writing of Edom. Importantly, this PARELTHEIN written in this Quod Deus specifically describes theory of “good”, the Quod Deus 152 further writing
TI OUN OFELOS PARELTHEIN PANTA TA THNETON THNETA AGATHA, PARELTHEIN DE ME SUN ORTHO LOGO…OU GAR PANTAKHOU PANTA, ALLA DE PAR’ ALLOIS TETIMETAI
Thus is found in Quod Deus 159 important description of marching along the King’s Road
ANUPERTHETOS OUN TE BASILIKE PEIROMETHA BADIZEIN ODO, OI TA GEINA PARERKHESTHAI DIKAIOUNTES...AUTE D’ ESTI, KATA KAI MIKRO PROTERON EIPON, SOFIA
Thereafter Philo notices in Quod Deus 164-165 famous comprehension of virtues being means, thus following much the Aristotelian famous philosophy in Nicomachaean Ethics, Philo here writing
TEN MESEN ODON EUTHUNEIN BOULOMETHA TE KAI EUKHOMETHA
Thereafter Philo describes courage being a mean, economy being a mean, prudence being a mean and piety being a mean, mentioning here also the excesses to be avoided, thus Philo here much following Aristotelian famous comprehension of virtue being a mean. Then Quod Deus 166 writes of earthly Edom’s attempts to make hindrance for such travellers; and the Quod Deus 167 then importantly writes the PARA TO OROS POREUSOMETHA TOUTESTIN HUPSELAIS KAI METEOROIS ETHOS EKHONTES ENOMILEIN DUNAMESI KAI ORIKOS EKASTA SKOPEIN, TON PANTOS OUTINOSOUN LOGON EREUNONTES, DI’ OU TO TI EN EINAI GNORIZETAI
This is very important Philonic interpretation of the very central statement of PARA TO OROS POREUSOMETHA describing conducting research in accordance with definition (ORIKOS EKASTA SKOPEIN), searching after their LOGOS, whereby becomes known their essence (TO TI EN EINAI). Philo thus comprehends the central statement PARA TO OROS POREUSOMETHA to denote making searches and studies for knowing essences (actually Num 20:17-21 writes of PARA TO OROS PARELEUSOMETHA and ODO BASILIKE POREUSOMETHA that Philo here interestingly combines). Especially, the word HUPSELAIS here also refers to SELA, mentioned also in Obad 3 SKNJ BHGWJ SLY, the Greek Bible writing famously of the PETRA, this Philonic statement much paralleling Obad 3. Further writes Quod Deus 180 O MEN OUN GEINOS EDOM TEN OURANION KAI BASILIKEN ARETES ODON EPIFRATTEIN AKSIOI O DE THEIOS LOGOS EMPALIN TEN EKEINOU KAI TON OMOZELON, thus also here Philo writing of the Edomite attempts of closing the heavenly King’s road of virtue.

Chapter 23. BOOK OF OBADIAH AND HISTORIES FROM PETRA-REQEM
Study by Pasi K. Pohjala 2010

Book of Obadiah is now studied in much detail and here newly and modern translated. The Book of Obadiah thus is undoubtedly shown to originate in culture and religion of Petra-Reqem and Nabataean culture. Especially Targumic translation often attests knowledge of Nabataean deities, their manifestations and Nabataean religion. This is very important result concerning history of Nabataean culture and the ancient prosperous metropolis Petra-Reqem, because often serious study of Nabataean culture